![]() Sialylated milk oligosaccharides (SMOs) seem to play an essential role in brain development as they act as the main suppliers of sialic acid, an important constituent of key brain proteins as gangliosides and myelin associated glycoprotein involved in the formation of brain structures sustaining cognition. The total sialylated oligosaccharide content of milk from traditional dairy animals is 10–100 times lower than that of human milk. Neutral oligosaccharides are the most common in human milk, whereas sialylated oligosaccharides account for about 80–90% of total oligosaccharides in non-primate animal milk. Chemically, the first has a fucosylated end, whereas the latter has a sialic acid terminal residue. Two classes of oligosaccharides are naturally found in milk: neutral and acidic. On the other hand, domestic animal milk oligosaccharides have been less studied and only 48 types have been characterized in cow, goat, sheep, pig, horse, and camel milk. Milk oligosaccharides in human breast milk have been extensively investigated and more than 200 different types have already been found. These molecules are synthesized in the mammary gland starting from monosaccharide units, which are combined with a lactose core through numerous possible linkages, resulting in a wide range of different structures that reflect the multitude of their biological functions. Moreover, milk oligosaccharides not only modulate the immune system, promoting beneficial effects on allergic disorders and autoimmune diseases, but also contribute to brain development and cognition. Although indigestible by infants, on reaching the large intestine, they act as prebiotics, stimulating the growth of beneficial microbiota, and as defensive agents against various toxins, pathogenic bacteria and influenza viruses, thus limiting the onset of enteric infections. Milk oligosaccharides, counted as the third component in quantity of the solid part of milk, are a complex class of glycans that have no direct nutritional value for the offspring, but act as bioactive factors in numerous defensive and physiological functions. Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins are the main milk nutrients necessary to support the newborn’s development until the weaning period. Milk is fundamental in the early nutrition of all baby mammals, being their primary source of nutrients and bioactive compounds. These data shed some light on this poorly explored research field, showing that both human and bovine oligosaccharides support brain proliferation and maturation. Moreover, sialylated human milk oligosaccharides seemed to increase the expression of genes related to cell cycle control and chromosomal replication, while bovine-derived oligosaccharides caused an increase in the expression of genes involved in synaptogenesis and neuronal signaling. The RNA-seq analysis indicated that both treatments exert an antioxidant effect in developing fish. Thigmotaxis results did not reveal significant differences in either the light or the dark conditions. Locomotion parameters were found to be similar during the light phase between control and treated larvae in the dark, however, milk oligosaccharide-treated larvae showed increased test plate exploration. The results suggest that burst activity and larval survival rates were unaffected by the treatments. Wild-type embryos were microinjected with saline solution or solutions containing sialylated milk oligosaccharides extracted from human and bovine milk. We attempted to increase the sialylated oligosaccharide content of zebrafish yolk reserves, with the aim of evaluating any short-term effects of the treatment on mortality, locomotor behavior, and gene expression. ![]() Early nutrition can modulate nervous system development and can lead to epigenetic imprinting. ![]() Milk oligosaccharides are a complex class of carbohydrates that act as bioactive factors in numerous defensive and physiological functions, including brain development.
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